Localized alterations in cortical thickness and sulcal depth of the cingulo-opercular network in relation to lower reading fluency skills in children with dyslexia.

The traditional models of reading development describe how language processing and word decoding contribute to reading comprehension and how impairments in word decoding, a defining feature of dyslexia, affect reading comprehension outcomes. However, these models do not include word and sentence reading (contextual reading) fluency, both of which engage executive functions, with notably decreased performance in children with dyslexia. In the current study, we compared cortical thickness and sulcal depth (CT/SD) in the cingulo-opercular (CO) executive functions brain network in children with dyslexia and typical readers and examined associations with word vs. contextual reading fluency. Overall, CT was lower in insular regions and higher in parietal and caudal anterior cingulate cortex regions in children with dyslexia. Children with dyslexia showed positive correlations between word reading fluency and CT/SD in insular regions, whereas no significant correlations were observed in typical readers. For sentence reading fluency, negative correlations with CT/SD were found in insular regions in children with dyslexia, while positive correlations with SD were found in insular regions in typical readers. These results demonstrate the differential relations between word and sentence reading fluency and anatomical circuitry supporting executive functions in children with dyslexia vs. typical readers. It also suggests that word and sentence reading fluency, relate to morphology of executive function-related regions in children with dyslexia, whereas in typical readers, only sentence reading fluency relates to morphology of executive function regions. The results also highlight the role of the insula within the CO network in reading fluency. Here we suggest that word and sentence reading fluency are distinct components of reading that should each be included in the Simple View of Reading traditional model.

Parent-child couples display shared neural fingerprints while listening to stories.

Neural fingerprinting is a method to identify individuals from a group of people. Here, we established a new connectome-based identification model and used diffusion maps to show that biological parent-child couples share functional connectivity patterns while listening to stories. These shared fingerprints enabled the identification of children and their biological parents from a group of parents and children. Functional patterns were evident in both cognitive and sensory brain networks. Defining "typical" shared biological parent-child brain patterns may enable predicting or even preventing impaired parent-child connections that develop due to genetic or environmental causes. Finally, we argue that the proposed framework opens new opportunities to link similarities in connectivity patterns to behavioral, psychological, and medical phenomena among other populations. To our knowledge, this is the first study to reveal the neural fingerprint that represents distinct biological parent-child couples.

Language First, Cognition Later: Different Trajectories of Subcomponents of the Future-Reading Network in Processing Narratives from Kindergarten to Adolescence.

Narrative comprehension is a linguistic ability that emerges early in life and has a critical role in language development, reading acquisition, and comprehension. According to the Simple View of Reading model, reading is acquired through word decoding and linguistic comprehension. Here, within and between networks, functional connectivity in several brain networks supporting both language and reading abilities was examined from prereading to proficient reading age in 32 healthy children, ages 5-18 years, scanned annually while listening to stories over 12 years. Functional connectivity changes within and between the networks were assessed and compared between the years using hierarchical linear regression and were related to reading abilities. At prereading age, the networks related to basic language processing accounted for 32.5% of the variation of reading ability at reading age (at 12-14 years) (R2 = 0.325, p = 0.05). At age 17, more complex cognitive networks were involved and accounted for 97.4% of the variation in reading ability (R2 = 0.974, p = 0.022). Overall, networks composing the future-reading network are highly involved in processing narratives along development; however, networks related to semantic, phonological, and syntactic processing predict reading ability earlier in life, and more complex networks predict reading proficiency later in life.

Executive functions-based reading training engages the cingulo-opercular and dorsal attention networks.

The aim of this study was to determine the effect of a computerized executive functions (EFs)-based reading intervention on neural circuits supporting EFs and visual attention. Seed-to-voxel functional connectivity analysis was conducted focusing on large-scale attention system brain networks, during an fMRI reading fluency task. Participants were 8- to 12-year-old English-speaking children with dyslexia (n = 43) and typical readers (n = 36) trained on an EFs-based reading training (n = 40) versus math training (n = 39). Training duration was 8 weeks. After the EFs-based reading intervention, children with dyslexia improved their scores in reading rate and visual attention (compared to math intervention). Neurobiologically, children with dyslexia displayed an increase in functional connectivity strength after the intervention between the cingulo-opercular network and occipital and precentral regions. Noteworthy, the functional connectivity indices between these brain regions showed a positive correlation with speed of processing and visual attention scores in both pretest and posttest. The results suggest that reading improvement following an EFs-based reading intervention involves neuroplastic connectivity changes in brain areas related to EFs and primary visual processing in children with dyslexia. Our results highlight the need for training underlying cognitive abilities supporting reading, such as EFs and visual attention, in order to enhance reading abilities in dyslexia.

Executive functions abilities in preschool-age children are negatively related to parental EF, screen-time and positively related to home literacy environment: an EEG study.

Environmental factors such as Home Literacy Environment (HLE), screen time, and parental executive functions (EF) may influence the development of the child's EF. The purpose of this study was to determine the effect of these factors on behavioral and neurobiological measures of EF in 4-year-old children. Electroencephalogram (EEG) data were collected while children performed the Attention Network Task (ANT), showing a smaller difference between incongruent and congruent conditions is related to better EF abilities. Data were analyzed using an Event-Related Potential (ERP) technique focusing on the N200 and P300 components (reflecting executive control and orienting attention, respectively). N200 and P300 differences (delta) between amplitudes and latencies for the incongruent and congruent conditions were computed and correlated with child EF skills, HLE, screen exposure, and parental EF. Screen exposure was associated with lower EF in children and their parents. Additionally, smaller differences between N200 amplitudes and latencies for the incongruent vs. congruent conditions were associated with higher HLE scores. In contrast, greater differences between P300 amplitudes and latencies were related to longer screen time. HLE was positively associated with EF's neurobiological (EEG) and behavioral measures, and screen time was negatively associated with these measures. This study also highlights the important relationship between parental EF (i.e., family predisposition) and EF's neurobiological and behavioral measures in their children.

Better executive functions (EF) in children are related to better EF in their parent.Higher screen time was related to lower EF in the parents and their preschool-age children.Poorer EF in a child (manifested by lower differences between N200 amplitudes and latencies for incongruent vs congruent conditions during the attention/inhibition task) was negatively correlated with home interactions involving reading and writing (assessed as Home Literacy Environment).Poorer EF in the child (manifested by lower differences between P300 amplitudes and latencies for incongruent vs congruent conditions) was positively associated with screen time.

Fluent contextual reading is associated with greater synchronization of the visual and auditory networks, fluent reading and better speed of processing in children with dyslexia.

The asynchrony theory of dyslexia postulates weaker visual (orthographical processing) and auditory (phonological processing) network synchrony in dyslexic readers. The weaker visual-auditory network synchronization is suggested to contribute to slow processing speed, which supports cognitive control, contributing to single-word reading difficulty and lower reading fluency. The current study aims to determine the neurobiological signature for this theory and to examine if prompting enhanced reading speed through deleted text is associated with a greater synchronization of functional connectivity of the visual and auditory networks in children with dyslexia and typical readers (TRs). We further aimed to determine if the change in visual-auditory connectivity prompted by deleted text is associated with reading fluency and processing speed abilities. Nineteen children with dyslexia and 21 typical readers ages 8-12 years old participated in a fMRI under two types of reading conditions: a still text condition and deleted text condition, in which letters was sequentially deleted from the screen. Effects of diagnostic group and condition on functional connectivity (FC) of visual and auditory networks were examined. Results revealed a significant overall effect of condition with a marginally significant Group × Condition interaction, such that as compared with TRs, children with dyslexia showed a significantly greater increase in visual-auditory FC between the still and deleted text conditions. Additionally, for children with dyslexia, this FC increase was significantly correlated with better reading fluency and verbal/nonverbal processing speed. These results support a relationship between the synchronization of the visual and auditory networks, fluent reading and increased speed of processing abilities in children with dyslexia, which can help guide fluency-based intervention strategies.

Altered white matter organization and its correlations with executive functioning among adolescents with epilepsy.

Deficits in executive functions (EF) are a common comorbidity among adolescents with epilepsy. EF deficits were previously correlated with altered connectivity of the fronto-parietal and cingulo-opercular neural networks. The current study investigated white matter integrity in adolescents with epilepsy (n = 29) relative to healthy controls (n = 19). Participants completed questionnaires, neuropsychological testing, and brain magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) that included diffusion tensor imaging (DTI) sequences. On BRIEF parent-report questionnaires, adolescents with epilepsy demonstrated lower working memory and planning abilities than healthy controls. Among adolescents with epilepsy, DTI measurements revealed lower fractional anisotropy (FA) within the right superior longitudinal fasciculus, forceps minor, and the superior frontal segment of the corpus callosum, and higher FA in the left uncinate fasciculus, compared to healthy controls. Better working memory ability in the epilepsy group was associated with higher FA in the superior frontal segment of the corpus callosum. Only in healthy controls, working memory and planning were positively associated with FA values in the left UF, forceps minor and the superior frontal segment of the corpus callosum. The current study complements previous functional studies on the same cohort and suggests that EF impairments among adolescents with epilepsy may be related to the altered anatomical organization of white matter tracts. Combining structural and functional data could potentially enrich the neuropsychological assessment of executive functioning in adolescents with epilepsy.

Neurobiological perspective on the development of executive functions.

Executive functions are a set of top-down cognitive processes necessary for emotional self-regulation and goal-directed behaviour supporting, among others, academic abilities. Premature infants are at high risk for subsequent cognitive, psychosocial, or behavioural problems even in the absence of medical complications and in spite of normal brain imaging. Given that this is a sensitive period of brain growth and maturation, these factors may place preterm infants at high risk for executive function dysfunction, disrupted long-term development, and lower academic achievements. Therefore, careful attention to interventions at this age is essential for intact executive functions and academic development.

Maternal education as an environmental factor related to reading in children with reading difficulties: A functional magnetic resonance imaging study.

The expanded simple view of reading (SVR) model suggests that word decoding, language comprehension and executive functions are necessary for reading comprehension. Children with reading difficulties (RDs) often have deficits in critical components of reading established in the expanded SVR model and alterations in brain function of reading-related regions. Maternal education could provide children with advantageous educational opportunities or resources that support reading acquisition. The primary goal of this study was to examine the contributions of maternal education to the behavioural and neurobiological correlates of the expanded SVR model. Seventy-two 8- to 12-year-old children with RDs and typical readers (TRs) completed reading, behavioural and an functional magnetic resonance imaging stories-listening task to determine the functional connectivity of the receptive language network to the whole brain in association with maternal education. Higher maternal education was associated with better vocabulary in children with RDs and positive functional connectivity between the receptive language network and regions related to visual processing in children with RDs versus TRs. These data suggest that maternal education supports the ability to comprehend oral language and engagement of neural networks that support imagination/visualization in children with RDs.

Higher theta-beta ratio during screen-based vs. printed paper is related to lower attention in children: An EEG study.

Reading is considered a non-intuitive, cognitively demanding ability requiring synchronization between several neural networks supporting visual, language processing and higher-order abilities. With the involvement of technology in our everyday life, reading from a screen has become widely used. Several studies point to challenges in processing written materials from the screen due to changes in attention allocation when reading from a screen compared to reading from a printed paper. The current study examined the differences in brain activation when reading from a screen compared to reading from a printed paper focusing on spectral power related to attention in fifteen 6-8-year-old children. Using an electroencephalogram, children read two different age-appropriate texts, without illustrations, presented randomly on the screen and on a printed paper. Data were analyzed using spectral analyses in brain regions related to language, visual processing, and cognitive control, focusing on theta vs. beta waveforms. Results indicated that while reading from a printed paper was accompanied by higher energy in high-frequency bands (beta, gamma), reading from the screen was manifested by a higher power in the lower frequency bands (alpha, theta). Higher theta compared to the beta ratio, representing challenges in allocating attention to a given task, was found for the screen reading compared to the printed paper reading condition. Also, a significant negative correlation was found between differences in theta/beta ratio for screen vs paper reading and accuracy level in the age-normalized Sky-Search task measuring attention and a positive correlation with performance time. These results provide neurobiological support for the greater cognitive load and reduced focused attention during screen-based compared to print-based reading and suggest a different reliance on attention resources for the two conditions in children.

Impact of text-to-speech features on the reading comprehension of children with reading and language difficulties.

This study investigated the reading comprehension scores of students with reading and language difficulties after reading a passage with and without text-to-speech (TTS). Students, ages 8 to 12 years, read five passages under the following conditions: (a) silent read, (b) read aloud, (c) listen only, (d) TTS with no highlighting, and (e) TTS with highlighting. Students answered multiple-choice comprehension questions following each condition. Mixed ANOVAs were performed to determine whether TTS improved reading comprehension. TTS significantly improved comprehension in comparison to no TTS, and specifically, TTS with no highlighting and TTS with highlighting resulted in significantly higher comprehension scores compared to silent read. No other significant differences were found across conditions including between the presentational features of TTS, specifically TTS with no highlighting and TTS with highlighting conditions. Students were grouped as dyslexia only or reading and language impairment based on their test results. Findings suggested that students with dyslexia only scored significantly higher on reading comprehension questions in all reading conditions and derived significantly more benefit in reading comprehension from TTS and the listen only condition compared to students with Reading and Language Impairment. Overall, TTS may be a helpful tool for supporting the reading comprehension of students with reading and language difficulties, particularly for students with dyslexia only; however, further studies are needed to explore the benefits of TTS' presentational features such as highlighting with students with reading and language difficulties.

Multimodal Approach for Characterizing the Quality of Parent-Child Interaction: A Single Synchronization Source May Not Tell the Whole Story.

The interaction between the parent and child is essential for the child's cognitive and emotional development and sets the path for future well-being. These interactions, starting from birth, are necessary for providing the sensory stimulation the child needs in the critical time window of brain development. The characterization of parent-child interactions is traditionally performed by human decoding. This approach is considered the leading and most accurate way of characterizing the quality of these interactions. However, the development of computational tools and especially the concept of parent-child synchronization opened up an additional source of data characterizing these interactions in an objective, less human-labor manner. Such sources include brain-to-brain, voice/speech, eye contact, motor, and heart-rate synchronization. However, can a single source synchronization dataset accurately represent parent-child interaction? Will attending to the same stimulation, often resulting in a higher brain-to-brain synchronization, be considered an interactive condition? In this perspective, we will try to convey a new concept of the child-parent interaction synchronization (CHIPS) matrix, which includes the different sources of signals generated during an interaction. Such a model may assist in explaining the source of interaction alterations in the case of child/parent developmental/emotional or sensory deficits and may open up new ways of assessing interventions and changes in parent-child interactions along development. We will discuss this interaction during one of the parent-child joint activities providing opportunities for interaction, i.e., storytelling.

Characterizing different cognitive and neurobiological profiles in a community sample of children using a non-parametric approach: An fMRI study.

Executive Functions (EF) is an umbrella term for a set of mental processes geared towards goal-directed behavior supporting academic skills such as reading abilities. One of the brain's functional networks implicated in EF is the Default Mode Network (DMN). The current study uses measures of inhibitory control, a main sub-function of EF, to create cognitive and neurobiological "inhibitory control profiles" and relate them to reading abilities in a large sample (N = 5055) of adolescents aged 9-10 from the Adolescent Brain Cognitive Development (ABCD) study. Using a Latent Profile Analysis (LPA) approach, data related to inhibitory control was divided into four inhibition classes. For each class, functional connectivity within the DMN was calculated from resting-state data, using a non-parametric algorithm for detecting group similarities. These inhibitory control profiles were then related to reading abilities. The four inhibitory control groups showed significantly different reading abilities, with neurobiologically different DMN segregation profiles for each class versus controls. The current study demonstrates that a community sample of children is not entirely homogeneous and is composed of different subgroups that can be differentiated both behaviorally/cognitively and neurobiologically, by focusing on inhibitory control and the DMN. Educational implications relating these results to reading abilities are noted.

[Formula: see text] Higher access to screens is related to decreased functional connectivity between neural networks associated with basic attention skills and cognitive control in children.

Screen-based media has become a prevailing part of children's lives. Different technologies provide limitless access to a wide range of content. This accessibility has immensely increased screen exposure among children, showing that this exposure is associated with decreased cognitive abilities. This study was designed to evaluate how the neurobiological correlates for different sub-components of screen exposure, such as level of access, content, and frequency, are related to different cognitive abilities. Resting-state functional MRI data were collected in 29 native English-speaking children (8-12 years old), in addition to cognitive-behavioral measures. Functional connectivity measures within and between several networks related to cognitive control and attention were calculated [fronto-parietal (FP), cingulo-opercular (CO), dorsal attention (DAN), ventral attention (VAN), salience, default mode (DMN), cerebellar networks]. Sub-components of screen exposure were measured using the Screen-Q questionnaire. Higher access to screens was related to lower functional connectivity between neural networks associated with basic attention skills and cognitive control (i.e., DAN and salience). In addition, higher levels of parent-child interaction during screen exposure were related to increased functional connectivity between networks related to cognitive control and learning (i.e., CO and cerebellar). These findings suggest that screen exposure may reduce the engagement of basic attention and modulation of cognitive control networks and that higher levels of parent-child interaction engage cognitive control networks. An enhanced understanding of these processes can provide an important scientific basis for future educational and medical approaches regarding screen exposure.

Associations between digital media use and brain surface structural measures in preschool-aged children.

The American Academy of Pediatrics recommends limits on digital media use ("screen time"), citing cognitive-behavioral risks. Media use in early childhood is ubiquitous, though few imaging-based studies have been conducted to quantify impacts on brain development. Cortical morphology changes dynamically from infancy through adulthood and is associated with cognitive-behavioral abilities. The current study involved 52 children who completed MRI and cognitive testing at a single visit. The MRI protocol included a high-resolution T1-weighted anatomical scan. The child's parent completed the ScreenQ composite measure of media use. MRI measures included cortical thickness (CT) and sulcal depth (SD) across the cerebrum. ScreenQ was applied as a predictor of CT and SD first in whole-brain regression analyses and then for regions of interest (ROIs) identified in a prior study of screen time involving adolescents, controlling for sex, age and maternal education. Higher ScreenQ scores were correlated with lower CT in right-lateralized occipital, parietal, temporal and fusiform areas, and also lower SD in right-lateralized inferior temporal/fusiform areas, with substantially greater statistical significance in ROI-based analyses. These areas support primary visual and higher-order processing and align with prior findings in adolescents. While differences in visual areas likely reflect maturation, those in higher-order areas may suggest under-development, though further studies are needed.

Chronic pediatric diseases and risk for reading difficulties: a narrative review with recommendations.

Literacy is a major social determinant of health, rooted in skills that develop during early childhood. Children arriving at kindergarten unprepared to learn to read are more likely to have low reading proficiency thereafter. General and health literacy are highly correlated, affecting understanding of health conditions, treatment adherence, and transition to self-care and adult healthcare services. The American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP) recommends literacy and school readiness promotion during well-visits and neurodevelopmental surveillance is emphasized across primary and subspecialty care. While genetic and environmental risk factors for reading difficulties are well-established, risks related to complex and chronic medical conditions are less appreciated and under-researched. This review applies an eco-bio-developmental framework to explore literacy across five complex chronic conditions affecting millions of children worldwide: asthma, cancer, congenital heart disease, epilepsy, and sickle cell disease. In each, integration of an efficient reading brain network may be impacted by direct factors, such as ischemia, anesthesia, and/or medications, and also indirect factors, such as altered parent-child routines, hospital stays, and missed school. By integrating literacy into care management plans for affected children, pediatric primary care and specialty providers are poised to identify risks early, target guidance and interventions, and improve academic and health outcomes. IMPACT: While genetic and environmental risk factors for reading difficulties are well-established, risks related to complex and/or chronic medical conditions such as asthma, cancer, congenital heart disease, epilepsy, and sickle cell disease are substantial, less appreciated, and under-researched. General and health literacy are highly correlated, with implications for the understanding one's health condition, treatment adherence, and transitioning to self-care, which is especially important for children with complex and/or chronic illness. Pediatric primary care and specialty providers are poised to integrate reading and literacy into care management plans for children with complex and/or chronic illness, including early screening, guidance, support, and interventions.

Young children's screen time during the first COVID-19 lockdown in 12 countries.

Older children with online schooling requirements, unsurprisingly, were reported to have increased screen time during the first COVID-19 lockdown in many countries. Here, we ask whether younger children with no similar online schooling requirements also had increased screen time during lockdown. We examined children's screen time during the first COVID-19 lockdown in a large cohort (n = 2209) of 8-to-36-month-olds sampled from 15 labs across 12 countries. Caregivers reported that toddlers with no online schooling requirements were exposed to more screen time during lockdown than before lockdown. While this was exacerbated for countries with longer lockdowns, there was no evidence that the increase in screen time during lockdown was associated with socio-demographic variables, such as child age and socio-economic status (SES). However, screen time during lockdown was negatively associated with SES and positively associated with child age, caregiver screen time, and attitudes towards children's screen time. The results highlight the impact of the COVID-19 lockdown on young children's screen time.